INTRODUCTION
1.1 Related surveys  
1.2 Contributions and outline This survey presents:

EXISTING QUALITY VERSUS RESOURCE USAGE TRADEOFFS
2.1 Scientific computing  
2.2 Embedded, digital signal processing, and multimedia systems  
2.3 Computer vision, augmented reality, and virtual reality  
2.4 Communications and storage systems  
2.5 Big data and database management systems  
2.6 Machine learning  

ILLUSTRATIVE END-TO-END EXAMPLES
3.1 Example: a pedometer application  
3.2 Example: digit recognition  

TERMINOLOGY
4.1 Computation in the physical world  
4.2 Computation and correctness  
4.3 Standard viewpoints  
4.4 Quantifying errors  

TRANSISTOR-, GATE-, AND CIRCUIT-LEVEL TECHNIQUES
5.1 Notation  
5.2 Analog input / analog output systems: a comparison reference for quantization  
5.3 Analog computing: data processing with currents and voltages  
5.4 Probabilistic computing: exploiting device-level noise for efficiency  
5.5 Stochastic computing: unary representation and computing on probabilities  
5.6 Voltage over scaling: improved efficiency from reduced noise margins  
5.7 Pruned circuits for efficiency at the expense of precision and accuracy  
5.8 Approximate memory: reducing noise margins for efficiency in storage  
5.9 Summary  

ARCHITECTURE AND MICROARCHITECTURE-LEVEL TECHNIQUES
6.1 Notation  
6.2 Trading resource usage for correctness in processor cores  
6.3 Approximate memory elements  
6.4 Approximate communication  
6.5 Summary  

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE TECHNIQUES
7.1 Notation  
7.2 Static compile-time techniques  
7.3 Dynamic runtime techniques  
7.4 Summary  

OPERATING SYSTEM AND RUNTIME TECHNIQUES
8.1 Notation  
8.2 Runtime systems: computation  
8.3 Runtime systems: sensors, actuation, and displays  
8.4 Summary  

TAXONOMY

FUNDAMENTAL LIMITS OF RESOURCE VERSUS CORRECTNESS TRADEOFFS
10.1 From information and coding theory to coded computation  
10.2 Theoretical bounds  
10.3 Application-aware source and channel coding across the hardware stack  
10.4 Summary  

CHALLENGES

RETROSPECTIVE AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS