A B S T R A C T

1. Introduction

2. Preliminary  
2.1. Notations and Problem Definitions  
2.2. Learning Scenarios  
2.3. Data-based vs. Model-based  

3. Data-based Method  
3.1. Instance-based Method  
3.2. Feature Representation-based Method  

4. Model-based Method  
4.1. Parameter Regularization Method  
4.2. Parameter Tuning Method  

5. Application Scenarios  
5.1. Natural Language Processing  
5.2. Computer Vision  
5.3. Multimodality  
5.4. Biomedicine  

6. Discussion and Future Directions

7. Conclusion